"We review the experimental evaluations of several widely marketed nonprescription compounds claimed to be memory enhancers and treatments for age-related memory decline. We generally limit our review to double-blind placebo-controlled* studies.

"The compounds examined are phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidycholine (PC), citicoline, piracetam, vinpocetine, acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC), and antioxidants (particularly vitamin E).

"Results: In animals, PS has been shown to [reduce] many [mental] effects of aging, and to restore normal memory on a variety of tasks. Preliminary findings with humans, though, are limited.

"For older adults with moderate [mental] impairment, PS has produced consistently modest increases in recall of word lists. Positive effects have not been as consistently reported for other memory tests. There is one report of consistent benefits across a number of memory tests for a subset of normal adults who performed more poorly than their peers at baseline [the beginning of the tests.]

"The choline compounds PC and citicoline are thought to promote synthesis and transmission of neurotransmitters important to memory ... PC has not proven effective for improving memory in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease...The research on citicoline is practically nonexistent [except for one report that showed 'robust' improvement in story recall...]"

"Vinpocetine increases blood circulation and metabolism in the brain ... In three studies of older adults with memory problems associated with poor brain circulation or dementia-related disease, vinpocetine produced significantly more improvement than a placebo in performance on [total brain awareness] reflecting attention, concentration, and memory...

"If at all, ALC participates in cellular energy production, a process especially important in neurons, and removal of toxic accumulation of fatty acids.

"Antioxidants help neutralize tissue-damaging free radicals, which become more prevalent as organisms age. It is hypothesized that increasing antioxidant levels...might retard or reverse the damaging effects of free radicals on neurons. Thus far, however, studies have found that vitamin E does not significantly slow down memory decline for Parkinson's patients..."

*To avoid possible subjectivity, both the subjects and the testers are not told who took the nutrients and who did not.

Emphasis added.

In: Nutrition, 2003 vol. 19. By: Drs. McDaniel, Maier and Einstein, Dept. of Psychology, U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA.

Editor's note: The cholines are found in--soybeans! Vinpocetine and acetyl-L-carnitine are both sold in pills at health food stores and thru vitamin mail distributors like Swanson and Puritan Pride, as are ALC, PS and PC.